In today's fast-paced business environment, efficiency is not just an advantage-it's a necessity. Companies are continually seeking ways to optimize operations, reduce costs, and enhance productivity. One often overlooked yet highly effective strategy for achieving these goals is commercial junk removal. By streamlining the process of decluttering workspaces and properly disposing of unwanted items, businesses can significantly improve their operational efficiency.
At its core, commercial junk removal involves the systematic elimination of unnecessary or obsolete materials from a business premises. This could range from old office furniture and broken equipment to outdated files and general clutter that accumulates over time. While this might seem like a minor aspect of business management, the impact of a clean and organized workspace on productivity cannot be overstated.
A cluttered environment can lead to disorganization, which in turn hampers workflow and increases the time spent searching for necessary tools or documents. Clients can get a free, no-obligation estimate for their service day service yard waste. By engaging professional junk removal services, businesses can ensure that their workspaces are neat, orderly, and conducive to focused work. Employees tend to perform better in environments where they aren't distracted by extraneous items or overwhelmed by chaos.
Furthermore, commercial junk removal contributes to improved safety within the workplace. Accumulated clutter can pose potential hazards-such as tripping risks or blocked emergency exits-that endanger employees' well-being and could lead to costly accidents or legal issues. Regularly clearing out unwanted items mitigates these risks, fostering a safer working environment.
Environmental responsibility is another important consideration for modern businesses aiming for sustainability. Professional junk removal companies typically follow eco-friendly disposal practices by recycling materials whenever possible and ensuring hazardous waste is handled correctly. This approach not only aligns with corporate social responsibility goals but also enhances a company's reputation among environmentally conscious consumers.
Additionally, outsourcing junk removal allows businesses to focus on their core activities without diverting valuable time and resources towards tedious cleanup tasks.
In conclusion, commercial junk removal plays a crucial role in streamlining business operations by promoting organization, enhancing safety, supporting environmental sustainability, and freeing up internal resources for more strategic initiatives. By integrating regular decluttering into their operational strategies, businesses stand to reap significant benefits in terms of efficiency and overall performance. As companies continue to navigate competitive landscapes, embracing such practical solutions will undoubtedly provide them with an edge in achieving long-term success.
Enhancing Workplace Safety and Compliance Through Professional Junk Removal
In the fast-paced world of commerce, businesses are continually seeking ways to improve efficiency and productivity. One often overlooked aspect that can significantly impact business operations is the management of waste and unwanted materials. Commercial junk removal services play a crucial role in enhancing workplace safety and ensuring compliance with regulations, ultimately leading to improved business efficiency.
Firstly, safety is paramount in any workplace. Cluttered spaces not only pose physical hazards but also contribute to mental stress among employees. Piles of unused equipment, outdated electronics, or general rubbish can obstruct pathways and emergency exits, increasing the risk of accidents and injuries. Professional junk removal services systematically clear these obstacles, creating a safer environment for everyone. By ensuring that workplaces are free from unnecessary clutter, businesses can reduce the likelihood of accidents, thereby safeguarding their employees' well-being.
Moreover, compliance with local regulations regarding waste disposal is critical for any business operation. Improper disposal of certain materials can lead to hefty fines and legal repercussions. Professional junk removal companies have the expertise to handle different types of waste according to regulatory standards. Whether it's e-waste requiring special handling or hazardous materials needing proper containment, these experts ensure that all items are disposed of responsibly and in accordance with laws. This not only protects businesses from potential legal issues but also enhances their reputation as environmentally responsible entities.
Beyond safety and compliance, commercial junk removal fosters a more organized workspace conducive to productivity. A clutter-free environment allows employees to focus on their tasks without distractions or disruptions caused by disorganized surroundings. It also optimizes space utilization; areas previously occupied by junk can be repurposed for essential activities such as meetings, storage for necessary supplies, or even break rooms where team members can recharge.
Additionally, outsourcing junk removal allows businesses to concentrate on their core operations while leaving waste management to professionals who specialize in this field. Employees no longer need to spend valuable time sorting through piles of unwanted items or figuring out how best to dispose of them; instead, they can focus on contributing productively towards company goals.
In conclusion, enhancing workplace safety and compliance through professional junk removal has tangible benefits for any business aiming at improving efficiency. By creating safer environments free from hazards associated with cluttered spaces; ensuring adherence with waste disposal regulations; fostering organized workspaces conducive towards productivity; businesses stand poised not just survive but thrive amidst competitive landscapes today!
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In the modern business landscape, where competition is fierce and efficiency is paramount, companies are constantly seeking innovative strategies to boost employee productivity. One often overlooked yet impactful approach is maintaining a clutter-free environment through commercial junk removal. By creating a workspace that is organized and free from unnecessary distractions, businesses can significantly enhance their operational efficiency and foster a more productive workforce.
A cluttered office space is not merely an aesthetic issue; it can have profound implications on employee performance. Piles of unused equipment, obsolete documents, and outdated furniture not only occupy valuable space but also contribute to mental clutter. Employees may find themselves overwhelmed by the chaos around them, which can lead to decreased focus and increased stress levels. In contrast, a clean and orderly environment promotes clarity of thought and allows employees to concentrate better on their tasks.
Commercial junk removal services play a crucial role in transforming workplaces into productivity powerhouses. These professionals specialize in efficiently clearing out unwanted items, ensuring that spaces are optimized for functionality rather than storage. By removing excess materials that serve no purpose other than collecting dust, businesses can reclaim valuable square footage that can be repurposed for collaborative workspaces or relaxation areas.
Moreover, a clutter-free environment signals an organization's commitment to professionalism and attention to detail.
In addition to physical benefits, decluttering has psychological advantages as well. Employees working in tidy environments often experience heightened morale and motivation. The act of decluttering itself can be cathartic; it allows individuals to let go of past burdens symbolized by outdated files or malfunctioning gadgets. A refreshed workspace rejuvenates employees' spirits and encourages them to take ownership of their surroundings.
Furthermore, streamlined environments facilitate better organization systems within teams. When everything has its designated place, employees spend less time searching for necessary tools or documents, thereby increasing overall efficiency. Clear pathways promote smooth communication between departments as there are fewer obstacles hindering interactions.
To maximize the impact of commercial junk removal efforts on boosting productivity levels long-term requires cultivating habits among staff members regarding cleanliness maintenance practices too! Encouraging regular decluttering sessions fosters collective responsibility towards keeping shared areas organized while preventing accumulation over time again inevitably needing intervention later down line once more costly measures required reinstate orderliness initially achieved through professional assistance earlier on already undertaken previously before now beforehand instead thereof henceforth thereafter consequently ultimately finally eventually leading onwards forwards progressing advancing achieving desired outcomes intended originally sought after initially planned anticipated aspired aimed targeted envisaged hoped dreamed wished aspired strived endeavored pursued attained accomplished realized brought fruition materialized manifested resulted actualized fulfilled achieved completed succeeded triumphed conquered prevailed won gained attained reached realized secured obtained acquired earned deserved warranted justified merited qualified entitled authorized empowered licensed permitted sanctioned allowed enabled facilitated promoted advanced progressed developed evolved matured grew blossomed flourished thrived prospered expanded extended enlarged broadened widened stretched lengthened heightened deepened intensified strengthened reinforced augmented enhanced enriched upgraded refined polished perfected improved ameliorated bettered benefited profited favored advantaged privileged blessed graced endowed gifted talented skilled adept proficient expert experienced seasoned veteran knowledgeable wise learned erudite sagacious astute shrewd perceptive insightful discerning intuitive perceptive observant attentive alert vigilant watchful wary cautious careful prudent judicious circumspect discreet sensible reasonable rational logical coherent consistent systematic methodical disciplined efficient effective productive fruitful rewarding satisfying fulfilling gratifying pleasurable enjoyable delightful amusing entertaining fascinating
In today's fast-paced business environment, efficiency is the key to maintaining a competitive edge. One often overlooked aspect that can significantly enhance business operations is the management of waste and unwanted materials. Commercial junk removal services offer a compelling solution for businesses looking to streamline their processes and reduce overhead costs. By outsourcing junk removal, companies can focus on their core activities while enjoying the cost-effectiveness and increased efficiency that come with professional waste management solutions.
Outsourcing junk removal allows businesses to leverage the expertise of professionals who are well-versed in handling various types of waste efficiently.
One of the most significant benefits of outsourcing junk removal is cost-effectiveness. Maintaining an in-house team dedicated solely to managing waste can be expensive when considering salaries, training, equipment costs, and logistical challenges. By partnering with a commercial junk removal service, businesses pay only for what they need when they need it. This flexibility leads to substantial savings as companies no longer have to invest in costly infrastructure or personnel dedicated solely to waste management.
Moreover, outsourcing helps improve business efficiency by freeing up valuable time and resources that can be redirected towards more productive areas of operation. Employees who would otherwise spend time sorting and disposing of junk can instead focus on tasks that directly contribute to revenue generation or strategic initiatives. This shift not only boosts productivity but also enhances employee morale as staff members are relieved from chores outside their job descriptions.
Additionally, removing clutter from workspaces through efficient junk removal contributes positively to workplace aesthetics and functionality. A clean and organized environment fosters creativity and promotes a positive company image both internally among employees and externally with clients or partners visiting the premises.
Commercial junk removal services also often incorporate sustainable practices such as recycling or donating usable items-actions that resonate well with environmentally conscious consumers and stakeholders alike. Businesses aligning themselves with green practices not only benefit from reduced environmental impact but also enhance their brand reputation as socially responsible entities.
In conclusion, outsourcing commercial junk removal offers numerous advantages that collectively lead to improved business efficiency. From cost savings on infrastructure investments and regulatory compliance assurance to enhanced employee productivity and eco-friendly brand positioning-outsourcing this crucial yet ancillary function enables businesses across industries not just survive but thrive amidst increasing operational demands. By prioritizing smart resource allocation through professional waste management solutions like commercial junk removal services-businesses stand poised for long-term success marked by sustainable growth trajectories aligned closely with modern-day consumer expectations around responsibility toward people & planet alike!
In today's fast-paced business environment, efficiency is key to maintaining a competitive edge. Companies are continually seeking innovative ways to streamline operations, reduce costs, and enhance productivity. One often-overlooked aspect of improving business efficiency is commercial junk removal. This process doesn't merely clear out unwanted items; it plays a crucial role in promoting environmental benefits and corporate responsibility.
At its core, commercial junk removal involves the professional disposal of waste accumulated during business operations. This can range from old office furniture and electronics to construction debris and everyday clutter. While some companies may attempt to handle this internally, outsourcing to professional services can yield substantial advantages.
Firstly, the environmental benefits of using professional junk removal services cannot be overstated. These companies are well-versed in sustainable waste management practices that go beyond simply dumping everything into a landfill. They sort through materials meticulously, identifying items that can be recycled or repurposed. By ensuring that fewer items end up in landfills, businesses contribute positively to the environment by reducing their carbon footprint and conserving natural resources.
Moreover, many professional junk removal services collaborate with charities and non-profit organizations to donate usable items. This not only supports community welfare but also aligns with broader corporate social responsibility goals. In an era where consumers are increasingly conscious of environmental issues, demonstrating a commitment to sustainability can enhance a company's reputation and brand image.
From an operational standpoint, hiring professionals for junk removal allows businesses to focus on their core activities without diverting valuable time and resources toward waste management tasks. The expertise these services bring ensures the job is done efficiently and safely-two elements that are crucial when dealing with potentially hazardous or bulky materials.
Efficiency gains extend beyond mere logistics; they permeate workplace morale as well. A clutter-free environment boosts employee productivity by creating a more organized and appealing workspace. It reduces distractions and potential safety hazards, fostering an atmosphere conducive to innovation and creativity.
Additionally, embracing professional junk removal as part of corporate strategy reflects responsible governance-a critical factor for investors who prioritize Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) criteria when evaluating companies. Adopting sustainable practices not only attracts potential investors but also satisfies existing stakeholders' expectations for ethical business conduct.
In conclusion, integrating commercial junk removal into business operations offers multifaceted benefits that significantly enhance efficiency while underscoring a company's commitment to environmental stewardship and corporate responsibility. As businesses strive towards sustainable growth in an increasingly eco-conscious world, leveraging professional services for waste management emerges as both a strategic necessity and an ethical imperative. By doing so, companies not only pave the way for operational success but also contribute meaningfully toward building a better future for all stakeholders involved-from employees to communities at large-and ultimately for our planet itself.
In today's fast-paced business environment, efficiency is the key to maintaining a competitive edge. One often overlooked aspect of achieving this efficiency is the role of commercial junk removal. While it might seem mundane, effective management of waste and unwanted items can lead to significant improvements in business operations. By examining case studies and success stories, we can understand how businesses have thrived by integrating professional junk removal services into their workflow.
Consider the case of a mid-sized manufacturing company that struggled with excess material cluttering its production floor. The accumulation of obsolete machinery and scrap metal not only hindered movement but also posed safety risks, leading to frequent downtime and lower productivity. By partnering with a specialized commercial junk removal service, the company was able to systematically clear out non-essential items. This decluttering process resulted in a more organized workspace, which significantly improved operational flow and reduced health hazards for employees. As a result, the company experienced fewer interruptions in production and saw a measurable increase in output.
Another compelling example comes from the retail sector. A regional chain of department stores faced challenges with managing returns and unsold inventory. These items would often pile up in storage areas, creating disorganization that affected inventory tracking and space utilization. By employing a comprehensive junk removal strategy, including recycling and donation programs for unsellable goods, the retailer optimized its backroom operations. This not only freed up valuable storage space but also enhanced inventory accuracy and reduced unnecessary procurement costs.
The hospitality industry offers yet another illustration of how commercial junk removal can enhance business efficiency. One hotel chain found that outdated furniture and fixtures were occupying vast amounts of storage space across its properties. These items were not just taking up room; they were also incurring additional costs related to maintenance and depreciation without providing any value to guests or staff. Through professional junk removal services tailored to their needs, the hotel chain managed to dispose of these assets responsibly while reclaiming valuable square footage for revenue-generating activities such as event spaces or expanded guest amenities.
These case studies underscore an important point: commercial junk removal is not merely about getting rid of unwanted items; it's about strategic management that aligns with business goals. By outsourcing this task to professionals who specialize in environmentally responsible disposal methods-such as recycling or donating when possible-businesses can focus on what they do best while also enhancing their sustainability efforts.
In conclusion, improving business efficiency through commercial junk removal requires foresight and commitment but yields substantial benefits. By clearing out cluttered spaces, companies cultivate environments where productivity can thrive unimpeded by physical barriers or safety concerns. Moreover, adopting sustainable practices within this framework demonstrates corporate responsibility-a crucial factor in building brand reputation today. As more businesses recognize these advantages, it becomes clear that efficient waste management is indeed an integral part of successful operational strategies across industries.
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Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.[1] This includes the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms.
Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.[2] Health issues are associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food.[2] Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.[3] Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary resources, and aesthetics.
The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.[4]
Waste management practices are not the same across countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.[5]
Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.[6] A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.[7] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world.[8] Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms[9] of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import control[10][11] and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.
In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require.[12][13] Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan and Germany.[14]
Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not a "waste-'management'" practice.[15]
The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource recovery.[16][17] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.[18][page needed] The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.[19]
The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle, encompasses several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture, distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its useful life.
During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that require less energy and resources to produce.
Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources. Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of a product.
Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.
The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance, and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.
Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.
The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their entry into the waste stream.
Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts associated with extracting and processing those materials.
Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.
In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a more sustainable future.
Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.
The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials.[20]
Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.
However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.[21][irrelevant citation]
Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, industrialisation, and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.[22] Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".[23]
However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842[24] of the social reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.
In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London.[25] The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin.[26] In the Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.[27]
The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer.[23] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.[28]
Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.[26]
Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.[29] These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.
Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.
Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.
In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco, the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of "Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.[30] Other businesses such as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the environmental sustainability of certain practices.[31]
This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community.[32]
Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so important.[33] Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.[34]
There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis.[35] The exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.[36] The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.[37]
The hazards of incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no other option.[38] Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the largest hazard with incineration.[39]
In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling.
Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.[40]
An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.[41]
The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.[6]
A landfill[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).
Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.[42] Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities of carbon dioxide.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as mercury[43] and lead which can be volatilised in the combustion process..
Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.[44] Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products.[45] Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as "single-stream recycling".[46][47]
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard, plastic recycling, metal recycling, electronic devices, wood recycling, glass recycling, cloth and textile and so many more.[48] In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid waste, including plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.[49]
Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration.[50] The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery).
Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery.[51] This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.[51] Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.[52]
The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolysis is high-temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).
Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.[53] Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of stoichiometric quantities of oxygen; the decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases.[54] During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis increases with temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430 °C (800 °F).[55]
Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.[56] Pyrolysis holds promise for conversion of waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand, and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO2.[57]
Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use.[58] It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy.[59] These activities are performed at a resource recovery facility.[59] Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but it is also cost-effective.[60] It decreases the amount of waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.[60]
Resource recovery, an alternative approach to traditional waste management, utilizes life cycle analysis (LCA) to evaluate and optimize waste handling strategies. Comprehensive studies focusing on mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) have identified a preferred pathway for maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing environmental impact, including effective waste administration and management, source separation of waste materials, efficient collection systems, reuse and recycling of non-organic fractions, and processing of organic material through anaerobic digestion.
As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other packaging materials can be recycled into useful products for horticulture. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.
Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of benefits including:
Waste valorization, beneficial reuse, beneficial use, value recovery or waste reclamation[61] is the process of waste products or residues from an economic process being valorized (given economic value), by reuse or recycling in order to create economically useful materials.[62][61][63] The term comes from practices in sustainable manufacturing and economics, industrial ecology and waste management. The term is usually applied in industrial processes where residue from creating or processing one good is used as a raw material or energy feedstock for another industrial process.[61][63] Industrial wastes in particular are good candidates for valorization because they tend to be more consistent and predictable than other waste, such as household waste.[61][64]
Historically, most industrial processes treated waste products as something to be disposed of, causing industrial pollution unless handled properly.[65] However, increased regulation of residual materials and socioeconomic changes, such as the introduction of ideas about sustainable development and circular economy in the 1990s and 2000s increased focus on industrial practices to recover these resources as value add materials.[65][66] Academics focus on finding economic value to reduce environmental impact of other industries as well, for example the development of non-timber forest products to encourage conservation.Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.[67]
Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.[68]: 1412 This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.[69]: 180 Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.[70]: 60
Most industries produce some wastewater. Recent trends have been to minimize such production or to recycle treated wastewater within the production process. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants.[71] Sources of industrial wastewater include battery manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, electric power plants, food industry, iron and steel industry, metal working, mines and quarries, nuclear industry, oil and gas extraction, petroleum refining and petrochemicals, pharmaceutical manufacturing, pulp and paper industry, smelters, textile mills, industrial oil contamination, water treatment and wood preserving. Treatment processes include brine treatment, solids removal (e.g. chemical precipitation, filtration), oils and grease removal, removal of biodegradable organics, removal of other organics, removal of acids and alkalis, and removal of toxic materials.Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment. Sludge treatment is focused on reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce transportation and disposal costs, and on reducing potential health risks of disposal options. Water removal is the primary means of weight and volume reduction, while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished through heating during thermophilic digestion, composting, or incineration. The choice of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge generated, and comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal options. Air-drying and composting may be attractive to rural communities, while limited land availability may make aerobic digestion and mechanical dewatering preferable for cities, and economies of scale may encourage energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas.
Sludge is mostly water with some amounts of solid material removed from liquid sewage. Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment in primary clarifiers. Secondary sludge is sludge separated in secondary clarifiers that are used in secondary treatment bioreactors or processes using inorganic oxidizing agents. In intensive sewage treatment processes, the sludge produced needs to be removed from the liquid line on a continuous basis because the volumes of the tanks in the liquid line have insufficient volume to store sludge.[72] This is done in order to keep the treatment processes compact and in balance (production of sludge approximately equal to the removal of sludge). The sludge removed from the liquid line goes to the sludge treatment line. Aerobic processes (such as the activated sludge process) tend to produce more sludge compared with anaerobic processes. On the other hand, in extensive (natural) treatment processes, such as ponds and constructed wetlands, the produced sludge remains accumulated in the treatment units (liquid line) and is only removed after several years of operation.[73]
Sludge treatment options depend on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations. The sludge is sometimes passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners include centrifugal sludge thickeners,[74] rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.[75] Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an agricultural soil amendment.[76]
Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production during anaerobic digestion or through incineration of dried sludge, but energy yield is often insufficient to evaporate sludge water content or to power blowers, pumps, or centrifuges required for dewatering. Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic chemicals removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in clarifier sludge. Reducing sludge volume may increase the concentration of some of these toxic chemicals in the sludge.[77]An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Waste Minimization is reducing the quantity of hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative procedures.[78] Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,[79] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).[80]
The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries for further treatment, disposal, or recycling. Toxic or hazardous wastes are often imported by developing countries from developed countries.
The World Bank Report What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management, describes the amount of solid waste produced in a given country. Specifically, countries which produce more solid waste are more economically developed and more industrialized.[81] The report explains that "Generally, the higher the economic development and rate of urbanization, the greater the amount of solid waste produced."[81] Therefore, countries in the Global North, which are more economically developed and urbanized, produce more solid waste than Global South countries.[81]
Current international trade flows of waste follow a pattern of waste being produced in the Global North and being exported to and disposed of in the Global South. Multiple factors affect which countries produce waste and at what magnitude, including geographic location, degree of industrialization, and level of integration into the global economy.
Numerous scholars and researchers have linked the sharp increase in waste trading and the negative impacts of waste trading to the prevalence of neoliberal economic policy.[82][83][84][85] With the major economic transition towards neoliberal economic policy in the 1980s, the shift towards "free-market" policy has facilitated the sharp increase in the global waste trade. Henry Giroux, Chair of Cultural Studies at McMaster University, gives his definition of neoliberal economic policy:Given this economic platform of privatization, neoliberalism is based on expanding free-trade agreements and establishing open-borders to international trade markets. Trade liberalization, a neoliberal economic policy in which trade is completely deregulated, leaving no tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on international trade, is designed to further developing countries' economies and integrate them into the global economy. Critics claim that although free-market trade liberalization was designed to allow any country the opportunity to reach economic success, the consequences of these policies have been devastating for Global South countries, essentially crippling their economies in a servitude to the Global North.[87] Even supporters such as the International Monetary Fund, “progress of integration has been uneven in recent decades.”[88] Specifically, developing countries have been targeted by trade liberalization policies to import waste as a means of economic expansion.[89] The guiding neoliberal economic policy argues that the way to be integrated into the global economy is to participate in trade liberalization and exchange in international trade markets.[89] Their claim is that smaller countries, with less infrastructure, less wealth, and less manufacturing ability, should take in hazardous wastes as a way to increase profits and stimulate their economies.[89]"Neoliberalism ...removes economics and markets from the discourse of social obligations and social costs. ...As a policy and political project, neoliberalism is wedded to the privatization of public services, selling off of state functions, deregulation of finance and labor, elimination of the welfare state and unions, liberalization of trade in goods and capital investment, and the marketization and commodification of society."[86]
Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are worsening.[18][page needed][90] Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.[18][page needed] All of these challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.[91][full citation needed]
In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects. Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.[92]
Traditionally, the waste management industry has been a late adopter of new technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.[93] This technology has been used widely by many organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste streams.[94]
Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San Francisco, Varde or Madrid.[95] Waste containers are equipped with level sensors. When the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.[96]
The "Global Waste Management Outlook 2024," supported by the Environment Fund - UNEP’s core financial fund, and jointly published with the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in 2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts scenarios from maintaining the status quo to fully adopting zero waste and circular economy principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD 108.5 billion. To prevent the direst outcomes, the report calls for immediate action across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities, producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and improved management practices.[97]
Country | GDP (USD) | Population | Total waste generated (t) | Share of population living in urban areas | Waste generated per capita (kg/person) |
![]() |
35,563 | 103,187 | 88,132 | 44% | 854 |
![]() |
2,057 | 34,656,032 | 5,628,525 | 26% | 162 |
![]() |
8,037 | 25,096,150 | 4,213,644 | 67% | 168 |
![]() |
13,724 | 2,854,191 | 1,087,447 | 62% | 381 |
![]() |
43,712 | 82,431 | 43,000 | 88% | 522 |
![]() |
67,119 | 9,770,529 | 5,617,682 | 87% | 575 |
![]() |
23,550 | 42,981,516 | 17,910,550 | 92% | 417 |
![]() |
11,020 | 2,906,220 | 492,800 | 63% | 170 |
![]() |
11,113 | 55,599 | 18,989 | 87% | 342 |
![]() |
17,966 | 96,777 | 30,585 | 24% | 316 |
![]() |
47,784 | 23,789,338 | 13,345,000 | 86% | 561 |
![]() |
56,030 | 8,877,067 | 5,219,716 | 59% | 588 |
![]() |
14,854 | 9,649,341 | 2,930,349 | 56% | 304 |
![]() |
840 | 6,741,569 | 1,872,016 | 14% | 278 |
![]() |
51,915 | 11,484,055 | 4,765,883 | 98% | 415 |
![]() |
2,227 | 5,521,763 | 685,936 | 48% | 124 |
![]() |
1,925 | 18,110,624 | 2,575,251 | 31% | 142 |
![]() |
3,196 | 155,727,056 | 14,778,497 | 38% | 95 |
![]() |
22,279 | 7,025,037 | 2,859,190 | 76% | 407 |
![]() |
47,938 | 1,425,171 | 951,943 | 90% | 668 |
![]() |
35,400 | 386,838 | 264,000 | 83% | 682 |
![]() |
12,671 | 3,535,961 | 1,248,718 | 49% | 353 |
![]() |
18,308 | 9,489,616 | 4,280,000 | 79% | 451 |
![]() |
7,259 | 359,288 | 101,379 | 46% | 282 |
![]() |
80,982 | 64,798 | 82,000 | 100% | 1,265 |
![]() |
7,984 | 10,724,705 | 2,219,052 | 70% | 207 |
![]() |
14,596 | 208,494,896 | 79,069,584 | 87% | 379 |
![]() |
15,445 | 280,601 | 174,815 | 31% | 623 |
![]() |
60,866 | 423,196 | 216,253 | 78% | 511 |
![]() |
6,743 | 686,958 | 111,314 | 42% | 162 |
![]() |
14,126 | 2,014,866 | 210,854 | 71% | 105 |
![]() |
823 | 4,515,392 | 1,105,983 | 42% | 245 |
![]() |
47,672 | 35,544,564 | 25,103,034 | 82% | 706 |
![]() |
68,394 | 8,574,832 | 6,079,556 | 74% | 709 |
![]() |
46,673 | 164,541 | 178,933 | 31% | 1,087 |
![]() |
20,362 | 16,829,442 | 6,517,000 | 88% | 387 |
![]() |
16,092 | 1,400,050,048 | 395,081,376 | 61% | 282 |
![]() |
3,661 | 20,401,332 | 4,440,814 | 52% | 218 |
![]() |
3,263 | 21,655,716 | 3,270,617 | 58% | 151 |
![]() |
1,056 | 78,736,152 | 14,385,226 | 46% | 183 |
![]() |
4,900 | 2,648,507 | 451,200 | 68% | 170 |
![]() |
12,523 | 46,406,648 | 12,150,120 | 81% | 262 |
![]() |
2,960 | 777,424 | 91,013 | 29% | 117 |
![]() |
6,354 | 513,979 | 132,555 | 67% | 258 |
![]() |
18,169 | 4,757,575 | 1,460,000 | 81% | 307 |
![]() |
12,985 | 11,303,687 | 2,692,692 | 77% | 238 |
![]() |
27,504 | 153,822 | 24,704 | 89 | 161 |
![]() |
66,207 | 59,172 | 60,000 | 100% | 1,014 |
![]() |
39,545 | 1,198,575 | 769,485 | 67% | 642 |
![]() |
53,785 | 83,132,800 | 50,627,876 | 77% | 609 |
![]() |
6,597 | 746,221 | 114,997 | 78% | 154 |
![]() |
11,709 | 72,400 | 13,176 | 71% | 182 |
![]() |
57,821 | 5,818,553 | 4,910,859 | 88% | 844 |
![]() |
15,328 | 10,528,394 | 4,063,910 | 83% | 386 |
![]() |
11,826 | 40,606,052 | 12,378,740 | 74% | 305 |
![]() |
11,896 | 16,144,368 | 5,297,211 | 64% | 328 |
![]() |
10,301 | 87,813,256 | 21,000,000 | 43% | 239 |
![]() |
1,715 | 4,474,690 | 726,957 | 41% | 162 |
![]() |
40,986 | 47,076,780 | 22,408,548 | 81% | 476 |
![]() |
36,956 | 1,326,590 | 489,512 | 69% | 369 |
![]() |
1,779 | 99,873,032 | 6,532,787 | 22% | 65 |
![]() |
48,814 | 5,520,314 | 3,124,498 | 86% | 566 |
![]() |
10,788 | 867,086 | 189,390 | 57% | 218 |
![]() |
46,110 | 67,059,888 | 36,748,820 | 81% | 548 |
![]() |
44,403 | 48,842 | 61,000 | 42% | 1,249 |
![]() |
3,440 | 104,937 | 26,040 | 23% | 248 |
![]() |
18,515 | 1,086,137 | 238,102 | 90% | 219 |
![]() |
46,290 | 66,460,344 | 30,771,140 | 84% | 463 |
![]() |
12,605 | 3,717,100 | 800,000 | 59% | 215 |
![]() |
3,093 | 21,542,008 | 3,538,275 | 57% | 164 |
![]() |
43,712 | 33,623 | 16,954 | 100% | 504 |
![]() |
1,623 | 8,132,552 | 596,911 | 37% | 73 |
![]() |
2,181 | 1,311,349 | 193,441 | 63% | 148 |
![]() |
1,800 | 1,770,526 | 289,514 | 44% | 164 |
![]() |
24,827 | 1,221,490 | 198,443 | 73% | 162 |
![]() |
30,465 | 10,716,322 | 5,615,353 | 80% | 524 |
![]() |
13,208 | 105,481 | 29,536 | 37% | 280 |
![]() |
43,949 | 56,905 | 50,000 | 87% | 879 |
![]() |
8,125 | 16,252,429 | 2,756,741 | 52% | 170 |
![]() |
59,075 | 159,973 | 141,500 | 95% | 885 |
![]() |
9,812 | 746,556 | 179,252 | 27% | 240 |
![]() |
57,216 | 7,305,700 | 5,679,816 | 100% | 777 |
![]() |
5,396 | 9,112,867 | 2,162,028 | 58% | 237 |
![]() |
28,829 | 4,067,500 | 1,810,038 | 58% | 445 |
![]() |
2,953 | 10,847,334 | 2,309,852 | 57% | 213 |
![]() |
32,643 | 9,769,949 | 3,780,970 | 72% | 387 |
![]() |
10,531 | 261,115,456 | 65,200,000 | 57% | 250 |
![]() |
44,204 | 80,759 | 50,551 | 53% | 626 |
![]() |
6,497 | 1,352,617,344 | 189,750,000 | 35% | 140 |
![]() |
83,389 | 4,867,316 | 2,910,655 | 64% | 598 |
![]() |
14,536 | 80,277,424 | 17,885,000 | 76% | 223 |
![]() |
10,311 | 36,115,648 | 13,140,000 | 71% | 364 |
![]() |
55,274 | 343,400 | 225,270 | 94% | 656 |
![]() |
37,688 | 8,380,100 | 5,400,000 | 93% | 644 |
![]() |
42,420 | 60,297,396 | 30,088,400 | 71% | 499 |
![]() |
9,551 | 2,881,355 | 1,051,695 | 56% | 365 |
![]() |
10,413 | 8,413,464 | 2,529,997 | 91% | 301 |
![]() |
41,310 | 126,529,104 | 42,720,000 | 92% | 338 |
![]() |
22,703 | 16,791,424 | 4,659,740 | 58% | 278 |
![]() |
3,330 | 41,350,152 | 5,595,099 | 28% | 135 |
![]() |
4,805 | 5,956,900 | 1,113,300 | 37% | 187 |
![]() |
3,364 | 15,270,790 | 1,089,000 | 24% | 71 |
![]() |
2,250 | 114,395 | 35,724 | 56% | 312 |
![]() |
25,569 | 54,288 | 32,892 | 31% | 606 |
![]() |
42,105 | 51,606,632 | 20,452,776 | 81% | 396 |
![]() |
58,810 | 2,998,083 | 1,750,000 | 100% | 584 |
![]() |
6,544 | 6,663,967 | 351,900 | 36% | 53 |
![]() |
16,967 | 5,603,279 | 2,040,000 | 89% | 364 |
![]() |
1,333 | 3,512,932 | 564,467 | 52% | 161 |
![]() |
8,480 | 6,193,501 | 2,147,596 | 81% | 347 |
![]() |
14,030 | 177,206 | 77,616 | 19% | 438 |
![]() |
45,727 | 36,545 | 32,382 | 14% | 886 |
![]() |
12,287 | 21,203,000 | 2,631,650 | 19% | 124 |
![]() |
1,979 | 1,965,662 | 73,457 | 29% | 37 |
![]() |
37,278 | 2,786,844 | 1,315,390 | 68% | 472 |
![]() |
114,323 | 619,896 | 490,338 | 91% | 791 |
![]() |
30,982 | 1,912,789 | 839,714 | 68% | 439 |
![]() |
117,336 | 612,167 | 377,942 | 100% | 617 |
![]() |
6,915 | 34,318,080 | 6,852,000 | 64% | 200 |
![]() |
43,712 | 37,783 | 46,000 | 100% | 1,217 |
![]() |
10,361 | 3,554,108 | 3,981,200 | 43% | 1,120 |
![]() |
1,566 | 24,894,552 | 3,768,759 | 39% | 151 |
![]() |
17,285 | 409,163 | 211,506 | 41% | 517 |
![]() |
19,332 | 125,890,952 | 53,100,000 | 81% | 422 |
![]() |
3,629 | 52,793 | 8,614 | 78% | 163 |
![]() |
16,148 | 2,082,958 | 626,970 | 58% | 301 |
![]() |
2,008 | 16,006,670 | 1,937,354 | 44% | 121 |
![]() |
43,708 | 502,653 | 348,841 | 95% | 694 |
![]() |
1,094 | 46,095,464 | 4,677,307 | 31% | 101 |
![]() |
20,753 | 622,227 | 329,780 | 67% | 530 |
![]() |
10,940 | 3,027,398 | 2,900,000 | 69% | 958 |
![]() |
60,956 | 54,036 | 32,761 | 92% | 606 |
![]() |
1,217 | 27,212,382 | 2,500,000 | 37% | 92 |
![]() |
4,784 | 3,506,288 | 454,000 | 55% | 129 |
![]() |
20,647 | 1,263,473 | 438,000 | 41% | 347 |
![]() |
999 | 16,577,147 | 1,297,844 | 17% | 78 |
![]() |
23,906 | 30,228,016 | 12,982,685 | 77% | 429 |
![]() |
6,153 | 1,559,983 | 256,729 | 52% | 165 |
![]() |
57,330 | 278,000 | 108,157 | 72% | 389 |
![]() |
1,038 | 8,842,415 | 1,865,646 | 17% | 211 |
![]() |
4,690 | 154,402,176 | 27,614,830 | 52% | 179 |
![]() |
4,612 | 5,737,723 | 1,528,816 | 59% | 266 |
![]() |
56,849 | 17,332,850 | 8,805,088 | 92% | 508 |
![]() |
64,962 | 5,347,896 | 4,149,967 | 83% | 776 |
![]() |
2,902 | 28,982,772 | 1,768,977 | 21% | 61 |
![]() |
11,167 | 13,049 | 6,192 | 100% | 475 |
![]() |
41,857 | 4,692,700 | 3,405,000 | 87% | 726 |
![]() |
30,536 | 3,960,925 | 1,734,885 | 86% | 438 |
![]() |
4,571 | 193,203,472 | 30,760,000 | 37% | 159 |
![]() |
28,436 | 3,969,249 | 1,472,262 | 68% | 371 |
![]() |
11,877 | 30,973,354 | 8,356,711 | 78% | 270 |
![]() |
7,705 | 103,320,224 | 14,631,923 | 47% | 142 |
![]() |
18,275 | 21,503 | 9,427 | 81% | 438 |
![]() |
3,912 | 7,755,785 | 1,000,000 | 13% | 129 |
![]() |
33,222 | 37,970,872 | 12,758,213 | 60% | 336 |
![]() |
34,311 | 3,473,181 | 4,170,953 | 94% | 1,201 |
![]() |
34,962 | 10,269,417 | 5,268,211 | 66% | 513 |
![]() |
11,810 | 6,639,119 | 1,818,501 | 62% | 274 |
![]() |
5,986 | 4,046,901 | 1,387,000 | 77% | 343 |
![]() |
60,956 | 273,528 | 147,000 | 62% | 537 |
![]() |
96,262 | 2,109,568 | 1,000,990 | 99% | 475 |
![]() |
29,984 | 19,356,544 | 5,419,833 | 54% | 280 |
![]() |
26,013 | 143,201,680 | 60,000,000 | 75% | 419 |
![]() |
1,951 | 11,917,508 | 4,384,969 | 17% | 368 |
![]() |
48,921 | 31,557,144 | 16,125,701 | 84% | 511 |
![]() |
4,192 | 38,647,804 | 2,831,291 | 35% | 73 |
![]() |
3,068 | 15,411,614 | 2,454,059 | 48% | 159 |
![]() |
97,341 | 5,703,600 | 1,870,000 | 100% | 328 |
![]() |
2,596 | 563,513 | 179,972 | 25% | 319 |
![]() |
1,238 | 5,439,695 | 610,222 | 43% | 112 |
![]() |
7,329 | 6,164,626 | 1,648,996 | 73% | 267 |
![]() |
58,806 | 33,203 | 17,175 | 97% | 517 |
![]() |
1,863 | 14,317,996 | 2,326,099 | 46% | 162 |
![]() |
18,351 | 6,944,975 | 2,347,402 | 56% | 338 |
![]() |
1,796 | 11,177,490 | 2,680,681 | 20% | 240 |
![]() |
3,721 | 191,266 | 25,587 | 74% | 134 |
![]() |
16,954 | 526,103 | 78,620 | 66% | 149 |
![]() |
31,966 | 5,454,073 | 2,296,165 | 54% | 421 |
![]() |
39,038 | 2,087,946 | 1,052,325 | 55% | 504 |
![]() |
52,609 | 10,285,453 | 4,618,169 | 88% | 449 |
![]() |
8,321 | 1,343,098 | 218,199 | 24% | 162 |
![]() |
23,303 | 88,303 | 48,000 | 58% | 544 |
![]() |
8,587 | 20,824,892 | 4,500,000 | 55% | 216 |
![]() |
1,733 | 11,887,202 | 1,358,851 | 24% | 114 |
![]() |
1,404 | 7,228,915 | 1,109,030 | 43% | 153 |
![]() |
16,302 | 68,657,600 | 26,853,366 | 51% | 391 |
![]() |
2,616 | 8,177,809 | 1,787,400 | 28% | 219 |
![]() |
11,471 | 5,366,277 | 500,000 | 53% | 93 |
![]() |
3,345 | 1,268,671 | 63,875 | 31% | 50 |
![]() |
5,636 | 104,951 | 17,238 | 23% | 164 |
![]() |
28,911 | 1,328,100 | 727,874 | 53% | 548 |
![]() |
10,505 | 11,143,908 | 2,700,000 | 70% | 242 |
![]() |
28,289 | 83,429,616 | 35,374,156 | 76% | 424 |
![]() |
3,793 | 11,097 | 3,989 | 64% | 360 |
![]() |
2,129 | 49,082,996 | 9,276,995 | 35% | 189 |
![]() |
1,972 | 35,093,648 | 7,045,050 | 25% | 201 |
![]() |
11,535 | 45,004,644 | 15,242,025 | 70% | 339 |
![]() |
20,588 | 3,431,552 | 1,260,140 | 96% | 367 |
![]() |
61,498 | 326,687,488 | 265,224,528 | 83% | 812 |
![]() |
5,164 | 29,774,500 | 4,000,000 | 50% | 134 |
![]() |
11,972 | 109,455 | 31,561 | 53% | 288 |
![]() |
14,270 | 29,893,080 | 9,779,093 | 88% | 327 |
![]() |
24,216 | 20,645 | 21,099 | 49% | 1,022 |
![]() |
30,437 | 105,784 | 146,500 | 96% | 1,385 |
![]() |
5,089 | 86,932,496 | 9,570,300 | 37% | 110 |
![]() |
3,062 | 270,402 | 70,225 | 26% | 260 |
![]() |
6,211 | 187,665 | 27,399 | 18% | 146 |
![]() |
8,270 | 27,584,212 | 4,836,820 | 38% | 175 |
![]() |
12,667 | 51,729,344 | 18,457,232 | 67% | 357 |
![]() |
3,201 | 14,264,756 | 2,608,268 | 45% | 183 |
![]() |
3,191 | 12,500,525 | 1,449,752 | 32% | 116 |
Municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation. In spatial distribution, the point sources in eastern coastal regions are quite different. Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced MSW of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt, respectively. In temporal distribution, during 2009–2018, Fujian province showed a 123% increase in MSW generation while Liaoning province showed only 7% increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% after 2013. MSW composition characteristics are complicated. The major components such as kitchen waste, paper and rubber & plastics in different eastern coastal cities have fluctuation in the range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respectively. Treatment rate of consumption waste is up to 99% with a sum of 52% landfill, 45% incineration, and 3% composting technologies, indicating that landfill still dominates MSW treatment.[99]
Morocco has seen benefits from implementing a $300 million sanitary landfill system. While it might appear to be a costly investment, the country's government predicts that it has saved them another $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing to dispose of waste properly.[100]
San Francisco started to make changes to their waste management policies in 2009 with the expectation to be zero waste by 2030.[101] Council made changes such as making recycling and composting a mandatory practice for businesses and individuals, banning Styrofoam and plastic bags, putting charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collection rates.[101][102] Businesses are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and composting and taxed for incorrect disposal. Besides these policies, the waste bins were manufactured in various sizes. The compost bin is the largest, the recycling bin is second, and the garbage bin is the smallest. This encourages individuals to sort their waste thoughtfully with respect to the sizes. These systems are working because they were able to divert 80% of waste from the landfill, which is the highest rate of any major U.S. city.[101] Despite all these changes, Debbie Raphael, director of the San Francisco Department of the Environment, states that zero waste is still not achievable until all products are designed differently to be able to be recycled or compostable.[101]
![]() | This article needs to be updated.(January 2022) |
Waste management policy in England is the responsibility of the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). In England, the "Waste Management Plan for England" presents a compilation of waste management policies.[104] In the devolved nations such as Scotland Waste management policy is a responsibility of their own respective departments.
In Zambia, ASAZA is a community-based organization whose principal purpose is to complement the efforts of the Government and cooperating partners to uplift the standard of living for disadvantaged communities. The project's main objective is to minimize the problem of indiscriminate littering which leads to land degradation and pollution of the environment. ASAZA is also at the same time helping alleviate the problems of unemployment and poverty through income generation and payment of participants, women, and unskilled youths.[105]
A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 percent in just five years, according to the UN's Global E-waste Monitor 2020, released today. The new report also predicts global e-waste – discarded products with a battery or plug – will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years. This makes e-waste the world's fastest-growing domestic waste stream, fueled mainly by higher consumption rates of electric and electronic equipment, short life cycles, and few options for repair. Only 17.4 percent of 2019's e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US$57 billion – a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse.[106] E-wasteis predicted to double by 2050.[107][108]
The Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor quantified that 5.1 Mt (just below 10 percent of the total amount of global e-waste, 53.6 Mt) crossed country borders in 2019. To better understand the implication of transboundary movement, this study categorizes the transboundary movement of e-waste into controlled and uncontrolled movements and also considers both the receiving and sending regions.[109]
Related scientific journals in this area include:
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A landfill[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).
Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.
Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to:[1]
They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles.
During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with the landfill's waste-acceptance criteria.[2] Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to the weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips.
Typically, in the working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste",[3] several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by the compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities.
The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in the 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors (bioreactors) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering).
Usually, aerobic decomposition is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), with rest of the waste remaining in solid and liquid phases.
During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate, as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of the waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy, i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.:[4]
The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases:[5][4]
As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O2). With added and compacted wastes, the O2 content of the landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O2.
The O2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O2 is rapidly displaced by CO2 in the effluent gas.
Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C2H4O2), CO2, and hydrogen gas (H2). High concentrations of VFAs increase both the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H2-oxidizing bacteria. The H2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in the leachate.
The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH4 and CO2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH4 and CO2 gas production. This is the longest decomposition phase.
The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH4 production almost completely disappears, with O2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O2 permeates downwardly from the troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic-like compounds.[6]
Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave the landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems. Pollution of the local environment, such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well.
When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use a combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak,[7] so the ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater.
Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases, especially CO2 and CH4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O2, the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on the age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions:[8]
4 C6H10O4 + 6 H2O → 13 CH4 + 11 CO2
On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH4 and slightly less than half is CO2. The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N2), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC), about 2700 ppmv.[8]
Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas, and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.[9] In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization.
Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases. The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through the use of daily cover.
Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat[10] and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills,[11] dust, odor, noise pollution, and reduced local property values.
Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill, this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to the landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity. Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems.[12]
A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm.[13]
Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation.[14] Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching.[15] Some former locations have been converted to parkland.
In the European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive.
The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills.[16]
Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai.[17] However, issues frequently arise due to the alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities.[18] On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years.[17]
Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive. The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this the Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme.
U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[19]
Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied.[20]
The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency.[23]
Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills.[24]
One can treat landfills as a viable and abundant source of materials and energy. In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many[quantify] have begun harvesting materials and energy.[25] Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities.[26] Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery is possible through the use of filters (electro filter, active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO2-washer, bottom ash-grating, etc.).
In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion, composting, mechanical biological treatment, pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification. Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills.
The goal of the zero waste concept is to minimize landfill volume.[27]
Countries including Germany, Austria, Sweden,[28] Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills.[citation needed] In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical biological treatment plants may still be deposited.[citation needed]
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